Eutrophication of Freshwaters

1. What is eutrophication?.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Definition and origin of the term eutrophication.- 1.3 Links between eutrophication, biological changes and productivity in lakes.- 1.4 Eutrophication as a natural part of lake succession.- 1.5 Extent of artificial eutrophication.- 1.6 Eutrophication in rivers, estuaries and coastal waters.- 1.7 Measurement of eutrophication.- 2. The nutrients causing eutrophication, and their sources.- 2.1 The requirements of living cells for survival and growth.- 2.2 The important limiting nutrients.- 2.3 The supply of nitrogen and phosphorus to lakes.- 2.4 Relative importance of diffuse and point sources in catchments.- 2.5 Global aspects of nutrient runoff.- 2.6 Methods for estimating the magnitude of nutrient losses from catchments.- 3. The biochemical manifestations of eutrophication.- 3.1 The components of nutrient cycles in aquatic systems.- 3.2 The ultimate sinks of inflowing nitrogen and phosphorus.- 3.3 Changes in the cycles which occur as a consequence of enhanced nutrient inputs.- 3.4 The importance of the littoral zone in nutrient cycles.- 3.5 Seasonal patterns of nitrogen and phosphorus cycles in lakes.- 3.6 Important features of nutrient transformations in rivers and estuaries.- 4. The biological effects of eutrophication.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Production and species changes of algae and rnacrophytes.- 4.3 Effects of eutrophication upon rnacrophytes and attached algae.- 4.4 Production and species changes in zooplankton.- 4.5 Production and species changes of zoobenthos.- 4.6 Effects of eutrophication on fish and other vertebrates.- 4.7 Aquatic food-web considerations.- 4.8 Wider implications for wildlife and conservation.- 5. The engineering, economic and social effects of eutrophication.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Water supply.- 5.3 Fisheries management.- 5.4 Land drainage and weed control in rivers.- 5.5 Wildlife conservation.- 5.6 Public health hazards and nuisances.- 5.7 Other recreational aspects.- 6. Prediction and modelling of the causes and effects of eutrophication.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Experimental approaches to measures of eutrophication effects.- 6.3 The application of models in eutrophication assessment and prediction.- 6.4 Caution in the use of regression equations.- 6.5 Lake classification based on correlations and large data sets.- 6.6 Other lake classification indices.- 6.7 Dynamic models of lake ecosystems.- 6.8 Prediction without models.- 7. The reduction of causes and the management of effects of eutrophication.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Reduction of nutrient inputs to lakes.- 7.3 Evaluation of nutrient control measures.- 7.4 Control of nutrient concentrations within lakes.- 7.5 Management of lakes without nutrient reduction.- 8. A case study in restoration: shallow eutrophic lakes in the Norfolk Broads.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Historical perspective.- 8.3 Eutrophication of the Broads.- 8.4 Mechanisms of change.- 8.5 Effects of change.- 8.6 Restoration of Broadland.- 8.7 Lake sediment as a source of phosphorus.- 8.8 Changes in the storage of phosphorus in lake sediment following phosphorus control.- 8.9 Biological response to reduced nutrient loading.- 8.10 Nutrient reduction by isolation.- 8.11 Sediment removal and lake isolation.- 8.12 Biomanipulation as a restoration technique.- 8.13 The restoration of Broadland in the context of two stable communities.- References.